E-mail Citation » The term entered the English language by 1796. The latter specifically took on political dimensions in the form of Marxism. Hegel's innovation in the history of German idealism was for a self-consciousness or self-questioning, that would lead to a more inclusive, holistic rationality of the world. Muir… Each successive explanation created problems and oppositions within itself, leading to tensions which could only be overcome by adopting a view that could accommodate these oppositions in a higher unity. 3.1 Monism In the above passage, Bradley expresses his monism with the words “the Absolute is not many; there are no independent reals.” In The Phenomenology of Spirit, for example, Hegel presents a history of human consciousness as a journey through stages of explanations of the world. Without the presupposition of âabsolute identityâ, therefore, the evident relativity of particular knowledge becomes inexplicable, since there would be no reason to claim that a revised judgement is predicated of the same world as the preceding â now false â judgement.[10]. Just as in mathematical construction we abstract from all the accidental features of a figure (it is written with chalk, it is on a blackboard) to see it as a perfect exemplar of some universal truth, so in philosophical construction we abstract from all the specific properties of an object to see it in the absolute whole.[14]. In the end Whitehead thought his philosophy could be understood as a transformation of absolute idealism in terms of the realities of process. Hegel's doubts about intellectual intuition's ability to prove or legitimate that the particular is in identity with whole, led him to progressively formulate the system of the dialectic, now known as the Hegelian dialectic, in which concepts like the Aufhebung came to be articulated in the Phenomenology of Spirit (1807). In the Phenomenology of Spirit, for example, Hegel presents a history of human consciousness as a journey through stages of explanations of the world. Although Hegel died in 1831, his philosophy still remains highly debated and discussed. Moreover, this development occurs not only in the individual mind, but also throughout history. Bradley, in full Francis Herbert Bradley, (born January 30, 1846, Clapham, Surrey, England—died September 18, 1924, Oxford), influential English philosopher of the absolute Idealist school, which based its doctrines on the thought of G.W.F. It is the one subject that perceives the universe as one object. Each successive explanation created problems and oppositions within itself, leading to tensions which could only be overcome by adopting a view that … Idealists are understood to represent the world as it might or should be, unlike pragmatists, who focus on the world as it presently is. By signing up for this email, you are agreeing to news, offers, and information from Encyclopaedia Britannica. [7] Thus the play between opposites, totalizing all 'difference' not just 'similarity' or identity results in a system of the Absolute, one not so much transcendental from these differences and similarities but arising therefrom, an Absolute 'whole'. Idealism is a term with several related meanings. Hegel asserted that in order for the thinking subject (human reason or consciousness) to be able to know its object (the world) at all, there must be in some sense an identity of thought and being. Bradley's genius is to supplement and "fill in" (his term) Kantian ethics, by "dressing Hegel in silk phrases," completing the circle between … c) The only way to resolve the contradiction would be to reinterpret the claim to independence, so that it applies not just to one concept to the exclusion of the other but to the whole of both concepts. Schelling's scepticism towards the prioritization of reason in the dialectic system constituting the Absolute, therefore pre-empted the vast body of philosophy that would react against Hegelianism in the modern era. At the same time, if the ground were wholly different from the world of relative particulars the problems of dualism would recur. One of Heidegger's philosophical themes was "overcoming metaphysics". Educated at Cheltenham College and Marlborough College, he read, as a teenager, some of Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason. It is a bargain and a must read for anyone with a … F.H. Schelling, in contrast, insists that human reason cannot explain its own existence, and therefore cannot encompass itself and its other within a system of philosophy. Indeed, their conception of metaphysics was staunchly different. Arriving at such an Absolute was the domain of philosophy and theoretical inquiry. Beiser (p. 19) summarises the early formulation as follows: a) Some finite concept, true of only a limited part of reality, would go beyond its limits in attempting to know all of reality. The English philosopher Francis Herbert Bradley (1846-1924) based his thought on the principles of absolute idealism. The things that appear to us as distinct individuals are actually aspects of the comprehensive, concrete individual, which Bradley calls the Absolute. Schelling's view of reason, however, was not to discard it, as would Nietzsche, but on the contrary, to use nature as its embodiment. ... Absolute idealism is commonly associated with the philosophy of Hegel, at least from the Phenomenology (1807) onwards. Nature, as that which is not spirit is so determined by spirit, therefore it follows that nature is not absolutely other, but understood as other and therefore not essentially alien. The significance of hiswork and its impact upon British philosophy were recognized by friendsand foes. It comes via idea from the Greek idein (ἰδεῖν), meaning "to see". In the philosophy of religion, Hegel's influence soon became very powerful in the English-speaking world. [Absolutism] argued that everything common sense believes in is mere appearance. Exponents of analytic philosophy, which has been the dominant form of Anglo-American philosophy for most of the last century, have criticised Hegel's work as hopelessly obscure. Schelling saw reason as the link between spirit and the phenomenal world, as Lauer explains: "For Schelling [...] nature is not the negative of reason, to be submitted to it as reason makes the world its home, but has since its inception been turning itself into a home for reason. This means that the Absolute itself is exactly that rational development. Bradley's views are the ones to which Russell and Moore are most directly reacting. For Schelling, reason was an organic 'striving' in nature (not just anthropocentric) and this striving was one in which the subject and the object approached an identity. America saw the development of a school of Hegelian thought move toward pragmatism. He rigorously criticized all philosophies based on the "school of experience." To put it another way, Absolute Knowledge or Consciousness is the passing through of different consciousnesses, the historical experience of difference, of the Other, to get to a total Oneness (Universe) of multiplicity and self-consciousness. "[5] For Hegel, the interaction of opposites generates, in a dialectical fashion, all concepts we use in order to understand the world. (Russell in Barrett and Adkins 1962, p. 477) Also: G.E. Bradley was born at Clapham, Surrey, England (now part of the Greater London area). Bradley describes the ways in which appearance is inseparable from reality, and he explains what this means for our understanding of the universe. It is also a science of actual content as well, and as such has an ontological dimension.[11]. that Hegel created his absolute idealism after Kant had discredited all proofs of God's existence. His writing is lively, frequently pointed and sardonic, a "good read". This is the leading monograph on British idealism and political philosophy, with seminal essays on several figures, including F. H. Bradley, Bernard Bosanquet, and T. H. Green. Neo-Hegelianism is a school (or schools) of thought associated and inspired by the works of Hegel. It refers mainly to the doctrines of an idealist school of philosophers that were prominent in Great Britain and in the United States between 1870 and 1920. Bradley is b… The Metaphysics of Experience. At the same time, they will have to, because otherwise Hegel's system concepts would say nothing about something that is not itself a concept and the system would come down to being only an intricate game involving vacuous concepts. Bradley's argument for absolute idealism is the best written in English. What we want to under-stand now is how this positive view is related to his discussions of objects, properties, and relations. In addition to the dialectic element of the Absolute, Hegel frequently equated it with the Christian conceptions of God, formulating the concept of God as a dialectic between the I and the Other; an Absolute Identity: In the religion of absolute Spirit the outward form of God is not made by the human spirit. ... T.S. In 1865, he entered University College, Oxford. Absolute idealism is an ontologically monistic philosophy chiefly associated with G. W. F. Hegel and Friedrich Schelling, both of whom were German idealist philosophers in the 19th century. He produces Himself of His own act, appears as Being for âOtherâ; He is, by His own act, the Son; in the assumption of a definite form as the Son, the other part of the process is present, namely, that God loves the Son, posits Himself as identical with Him, yet also as distinct from Him. For Hegel speculative philosophy presented the religious content in an elevated, self-aware form. The British school, called British idealism and partly Hegelian in inspiration, included Thomas Hill Green, Bernard Bosanquet, F. H. Bradley, William Wallace, and Edward Caird. God Himself is, in accordance with the true Idea, self-consciousness which exists in and for itself, Spirit. Moreover, this development occurs not only in the individual mind, but also through history. 78 relations. british absolute idealism: from green to bradley (pp. Moore took the lead in the rebellion, and I followed, with a sense of emancipation. In his major work, Appearance and Reality: A Metaphysical Essay (1893), F.H. Bradley’s Absolute is a modified excerpt (pp. So Beiser (p. 17) explains: The task of philosophical construction is then to grasp the identity of each particular with the whole of all things. Absolute idealism is an ontologically monistic philosophy "chiefly associated with G. W. F. Hegel and Friedrich Schelling, both German idealist philosophers of the 19th century, Josiah Royce, an American philosopher, and others, but, in its essentials, the product of Hegel". The name is also sometimes applied to cover other philosophies of the period that were Hegelian in inspirationâfor instance, those of Benedetto Croce and of Giovanni Gentile. For the German Idealists like Fichte, Schelling and Hegel, the extrapolation or universalisation of the human process of contradiction and reconciliation, whether conceptually, theoretically, or emotionally, were all movements of the universe itself. This phase is Bertrand Russell's rejection of Absolute Idealism, and his development of a new philosophy based, in part, on the logic that he developed. In the arts, similarly, idealism affirms imaginatio… Absolute Idealism is the view, initially formulated by G. W. F. Hegel, that in order for human reason to be able to know the world at all, there must be, in some sense, an identity of thought and being; otherwise, we would never have any means of access to the world, and we would have no certainty about any of our knowledge. Both logical positivism and Analytic philosophy grew out of a rebellion against Hegelianism prevalent in England during the 19th century. The assumption of form makes its appearance in the aspect of determinate Being as independent totality, but as a totality which is retained within love; here, for the first time, we have Spirit in and for itself. Existentialists also criticise Hegel for ultimately choosing an essentialistic whole over the particularity of existence. Neo-Hegelianism is a school (or schools) of thought associated and inspired by the works of Hegel. Bradley and Bernard Bosanquet), who made Absolute Idealism a dominant philosophy of the 19th century. In ordinary use, as when speaking of Woodrow Wilson's political idealism, it generally suggests the priority of ideals, principles, values, and goals over concrete realities. … 3. [citation needed], Schopenhauer noted[where?] Quinton, Anthony. As Bowie describes it, Hegel's system depends upon showing how each view and positing of how the world really is has an internal contradiction: "This necessarily leads thought to more comprehensive ways of grasping the world, until the point where there can be no more comprehensive way because there is no longer any contradiction to give rise to it. To gain such knowledge we should focus upon a thing by itself, apart from its relations to anything else; we should consider it as a single, unique whole, abstracting from all its properties, which are only its partial aspects, and which relate it to other things. Therefore, syllogisms of logic like those espoused in the ancient world by Aristotle and crucial to the logic of Medieval philosophy, became not simply abstractions like mathematical equations but ontological necessities to describe existence itself, and therefore to be able to derive 'truth' from such existence using reason and the dialectic method of understanding. In both Schelling and Hegel's 'systems' (especially the latter), the project aims towards a completion of metaphysics in such a way as to prioritize rational thinking (Vernuft), individual freedom, and philosophical and historical progress into a unity. They accepted as real all the everyday, common sense, things that Bradley had told us were mere illusions. A perennial problem of his metaphysics seems to be the question of how spirit externalises itself and how the concepts it generates can say anything true about nature. Be on the lookout for your Britannica newsletter to get trusted stories delivered right to your inbox. This use derives especially from F.W.J. This is a variation, if not a transformation, of Hegel's German Idealist predecessor Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling (1775â1854), who argued for a philosophy of Identity: âAbsolute identityâ is, then, the link of the two aspects of being, which, on the one hand, is the universe, and, on the other, is the changing multiplicity which the knowable universe also is. This leads to a consideration of Bradley's views about relations and (relatedly) experience and reality. Epistemologically, one of the main problems plaguing Hegel's system is how these thought determinations have bearing on reality as such. Given the relative status of the particular there must, though, be a ground which enables us to be aware of that relativity, and this ground must have a different status from the knowable world of finite particulars. Whereas rationality was the key to completing Hegel's philosophical system, Schelling could not accept the absolutism prioritzed to Reason. Of course, the same stages could be repeated on a higher level, and so on, until we come to the complete system of all concepts, which is alone adequate to describe the absolute.[15]. At the base of spirit lies a rational development. 20. Inspired by the system-building of previous Enlightenment thinkers like Immanuel Kant, Schelling and Hegel pushed Idealism into new ontological territory (especially notable in Hegel's The Science of Logic (1812-16)), wherein a 'concept' of thought and its content are not distinguished, as Redding describes it: While opinions divide as to how Hegelâs approach to logic relates to that of Kant, it is important to grasp that for Hegel logic is not simply a science of the form of our thoughts. The synthesis of one concept, deemed independently true per se, with another contradictory concept (e.g. Schelling and G.W.F. [citation needed], The absolute idealist position dominated philosophy in nineteenth-century England and Germany, while exerting significantly less influence in the United States. Josiah Royce (1855–1916), an American defender of absolute idealism. Absolute idealism is the attempt to demonstrate this unity using a new "speculative" philosophical method, which requires new concepts and rules of logic. Note: the following article on Neo-Hegelianism and F.H. As the above (by no means complete) account of his public recognitionreveals, in his own day Bradley’s intellectual reputation stoodremarkably high: he was widely held to be the greatest Englishphilosopher of his generation, and although the idealists were never adominant majority, amongst some philosophers the attitude towards himseems to have been one almost of veneration. Bowie elaborates on this: Hegel's system tries to obviate the facticity of the world by understanding reason as the world's immanent self-articulation. Bradley expounds his philosophy of absolute idealism, and offers a coherence theory of truth and knowledge. With the realisation that both the mind and the world are ordered according to the same rational principles, our access to the world has been made secure, a security which was lost after Kant proclaimed the thing-in-itself (Ding an sich) to be ultimately inaccessible. Even nature is not different from spirit (German: Geist) since nature is ordered by the determinations given to us by spirit. In Germany there was a neo-Hegelianism (Neuhegelianismus) of the early twentieth century, partly developing out of the Neo-Kantians. [citation needed]. In rejecting Bradley and idealism, Russell and Moore came to be realists. to be compared as 'relative' or otherwise): The particular is determined in judgements, but the truth of claims about the totality cannot be proven because judgements are necessarily conditioned, whereas the totality is not. For Schelling, the Absolute is a causeless 'ground' upon which relativity (difference and similarity) can be discerned by human judgement (and thus permit 'freedom' itself) and this ground must be simultaneously not of the 'particular' world of finites but also not wholly different from them (or else there would be no commensurability with empirical reality, objects, sense data, etc. Individuals share in parts of this perception. Paradoxically, (though, from a Hegelian point of view, maybe not paradoxically at all) this influence is mostly felt in the strong opposition it engendered. Bradley tries to prove that aspects of the everyday world are contradictory and therefore not real. Since the universe exists as an idea in the mind of the Absolute, absolute idealism copies Spinoza's pantheism in which everything is in God or Nature. the first is in fact dependent on some other thing), leads to the history of rationality, throughout human (largely European) civilisation. The absolute idealist position should be distinguished from the subjective idealism of Berkeley, the transcendental idealism of Kant, or the post-Kantian transcendental idealism (also known as critical idealism)[3] of Fichte and of the early Schelling.[4]. We can describe Bradley’s positive view as a monist idealism. British Idealism, as it crystallised in the 1870s, was unquestionably still something of a peculiarity in a culture characterised by an instinctive utilitarianism and the hard-edged empiricism of Thomas Hobbes and Jeremy Bentham. It would claim to be an adequate concept to describe the absolute because, like the absolute, it has a complete or self-sufficient meaning independent of any other concept. Proponents of absolute idealism: Hegel, Schelling, Green, Bradley, Wallace, Royce. Despite vigorous opposition, absolute idealism was the dominant view in British and American philosophy through the nineteenth century. [16] Continental phenomenology, existentialism and post-modernism also seek to 'free themselves from Hegel's thought'. "Without exception, the best philosophy departments in the United States are dominated by analytic philosophy, and among the leading philosophers in the United States, all but a tiny handful would be classified as analytic philosophers. Idealism and Realism Whitehead's Process Realism and Philosophical Method Bradley's Absolute and the Skeptical Method. It was importantly directed towards political philosophy and political and social policy, but also towards metaphysics and logic, as well as aesthetics. “Absolute Idealism.” Proceedings of the British Academy 57 (1971): 303–329. For example, the assertion that "All reality is spirit" means that all of reality rationally orders itself and while doing so creates the oppositions we find in it. The self-consciousness of the Son regarding Himself is at the same time His knowledge of the Father; in the Father the Son has knowledge of His own self, of Himself. Richard Kroner wrote one of its leading works, a history of German idealism from a Hegelian point of view. It is understandable then, why so many philosophers saw deep problems with Hegel's all-encompassing attempt at fusing anthropocentric and Eurocentric epistemology, ontology, and logic into a singular system of thought that would admit no alternative. The most cautious and penetrating of the British idealists was F. H. Bradley, who devoted great attention to the logical development of … To account for the differences between thought and being, however, as well as the richness and diversity of each, the unity of thought and being cannot be expressed as the abstract identity "A=A". We reverted to the opposite extreme, and thought that everything is real that common sense, uninfluenced by philosophy or theology, supposes real. I thought that whatever Hegel had denied must be true." Martin Heidegger, one of the leading figures of Continental philosophy in the 20th century, sought to distance himself from Hegel's work. For Bradley reality is ultimately timeless, while for Whitehead reality is process. Born in Clapham on Jan. 30, 1846, F. H. Bradley was educated at University College, Oxford. He was the child of Charles Bradley, an evangelical preacher, and Emma Linton, Charles's second wife. The aim of Hegel was to show that we do not relate to the world as if it is other from us, but that we continue to find ourselves back into that world. According to Hegel, the absolute ground of being is essentially a dynamic, historical process of necessity that unfolds by itself in the form of increasingly complex forms of being and of consciousness, ultimately giving rise to all the diversity in the world and in the concepts with which we think and make sense of the world. Against this background, it discusses Russell's own early work, which was in this idealist tradition. 159-174) In this chapter and the following two we shall investigate the importance of the “neo-Hegelian” movement in British philosophy, which flourished from the late nineteenth century before dying down significantly¹ by the mid-twentieth century. Absolute idealism and the problem of evil. The Absolute is the negation of self-division (the shadow of Hegel falls across these pages), and it is the "homecoming of the soul." The book begins by examining the British Idealism of T. H. Green and F. H. Bradley. 2. The second volume of J.H. The label has also been attached to others such as Josiah Royce, an American philosopher who was greatly influenced by Hegel's work, and the British idealists. The importance of 'love' within the formulation of the Absolute has also been cited by Hegel throughout his works: The life of God â the life which the mind apprehends and enjoys as it rises to the absolute unity of all things â may be described as a play of love with itself; but this idea sinks to an edifying truism, or even to a platitude, when it does not embrace in it the earnestness, the pain, the patience, and labor, involved in the negative aspect of things. A. C. Bradley was his brother. A Taste of Absolute Idealism. In politics, there was a developing schism, even before his death, between right Hegelians and left Hegelians. Bernard Bosanquet (1848–1923), a British idealist and speculative philosopher who had an important influence in political philosophy and public and social policy. For Hegel, the interaction of opposites generates in dialectical fashion all concepts we use in order to understand the world. F. H. Bradley’s Absolute Idealism is in sharp contrast to that of McTaggart’s. This version, a reproduction of the 1893 edition, is sturdy, well bound, on good paper. In this post I want to focus on the second prejudice, namely, that Absolute Idealism was first and foremost a creature of the 19th century, created by the post-Kantian German Idealists (Fichte, Schelling and Hegel) and then taken up and developed further by the Anglo-American Idealists (Green, Bradley, McTaggart, Royce). Yet this Absolute is different from Hegel's, which necessarily a telos or end result of the dialectic of multiplicities of consciousness throughout human history. Francis Herbert Bradley’s Appearance and Reality. The English philosopher Francis Herbert Bradley (1846-1924) based his thought on the principles of absolute idealism. Absolute idealism has greatly altered the philosophical landscape. Born in Clapham on Jan. 30, 1846, F. H. Bradley was educated at University College, Oxford. This article was most recently revised and updated by Brian Duignan, Senior Editor. The Analysis of Experience. G. E. Moore also pioneered the use of logical analysis against the absolutists, which Bertrand Russell promulgated and used in order to begin the entire tradition of analytic philosophy with its use against the philosophies of his direct predecessors. A crucial divergence from objective idealism is the reducibility of the person. Practitioners of types of philosophizing that are not in the analytic traditionâsuch as phenomenology, classical pragmatism, Learn how and when to remove this template message, Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Absolute_idealism&oldid=991355768, Articles lacking in-text citations from September 2010, Articles with unsourced statements from August 2018, Articles with unsourced statements from March 2018, Vague or ambiguous geographic scope from February 2019, Articles with unsourced statements from February 2019, Srpskohrvatski / ÑÑпÑÐºÐ¾Ñ ÑваÑÑки, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, This page was last edited on 29 November 2020, at 16:57. Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree.... Help support true facts by becoming a member. The Absolute is a non-personal substitute for the concept of God. We cannot, [Schelling] maintains, make sense of the manifest world by beginning with reason, but must instead begin with the contingency of being and try to make sense of it with the reason which is only one aspect of it and which cannot be explained in terms of its being a representation of the true nature of being.[12]. James was particularly concerned with the monism that Absolute Idealism engenders, and the consequences this has for the problem of evil, free will, and moral action. Fichte’s talk of an absolute self which lives its life through all finite persons. Here Spirit has stopped short half way.[6]. Bradley, dominated the last half. Schelling insists now that âThe I think, I am, is, since Descartes, the basic mistake of all knowledge; thinking is not my thinking, and being is not my being, for everything is only of God or the totalityâ (SW I/7, p. 148),[8] so the I is âaffirmedâ as a predicate of the being by which it is preceded.[9]. British Absolute Idealism, championed by T. H. Green, Bernard Bosanquet, and F.H. Schiller, on the other hand, attacked Absolute Idealism for being too disconnected with our practical lives, and argued that its proponents failed to realize that thought is merely a tool for action rather than for making discoveries about an abstract world that fails to have any impact on us. In English-language philosophy it is associated with the monistic idealism of such thinkers as F.H. Eliot raised a similar objection when describing Bradley’s Absolute as the ‘absolute zero’ (in “Leibniz’ Monads and Bradley’s Finite Centres,” a 1916 paper reprinted as an appendix in Eliot 1989, see p. 200). Historical Perspective Panpsychism Bradley's Finite Centres of Experience Whitehead's Actual Occasions. Particularly the works of William James and F. C. S. Schiller, both founding members of pragmatism, made lifelong assaults on Absolute Idealism. "[13] In Schelling's Further Presentation of My System of Philosophy (Werke Ergänzungsband I, 391-424), he argued that the comprehension of a thing is done through reason only when we see it in a whole. Hegel, prefigured by J.G. Francis Herbert Bradley (1846–1924), a British absolute idealist who adapted Hegel’s Metaphysics. Dieter Henrich characterised Hegel's conception of the absolute as follows: âThe absolute is the finite to the extent to which the finite is nothing at all but negative relation to itselfâ (Henrich 1982, p. 82). b) This claim would come into conflict with the fact that the concept depends for its meaning on some other concept, having meaning only in contrast to its negation. This chapter focuses on Green's views on absolute idealism. In 1870, he was elected to a fellowship at Oxford's Merton Collegewhere he remained until his death in 1924. As such the absolute is the finite, but we do not know this in the manner we know the finite. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Absolute-Idealism. Otherwise, the subject would never have access to the object and we would have no certainty about any of our knowledge of the world. Francis Herbert Bradley’s Appearance and Reality: A Metaphysical Essay (1893) discussses many important aspects of his philosophy of Absolute Idealism. Famously, G. E. Mooreâs rebellion against absolutism found expression in his defense of common sense against the radically counter-intuitive conclusions of absolutism (e.g. In recounting his own mental development Russell reports, "For some years after throwing over [absolutism] I had an optimistic riot of opposite beliefs. time is unreal, change is unreal, separateness is unreal, imperfection is unreal, etc.). There would then be a contradiction between its claim to independence and its de facto dependence upon another concept. The author approaches those views by considering a criticism of the views of Green. British philosopher Timothy Sprigge has suggested that in some respects Bradley's absolute idealism receives a better exposition in Essays on Truth and Reality than in Bradley's earlier work Appearance and Reality (1893). [1][2] A form of idealism, absolute idealism is Hegel's account of how being is ultimately comprehensible as an all-inclusive whole (das Absolute). At our present stage, on the contrary, the determinate existence of God as God is not existence posited by Himself, but by what is Other. The most influential exponent of absolute idealism in Britain was Bradley, who actually eschewed the label of idealism, but whose Appearance and Reality argued that ordinary appearances were contradictory, and that to reconcile the contradiction we must transcend them, appealing to a superior level of reality, where harmony, freedom, truth and knowledge are all characteristics of the one Absolute. Hegel’s idealism formed the basis of the Absolute Idealism of many philosophers (including F.H. Josiah Royce (1855–1916) was the leading American proponent of absolute idealism, the metaphysical view (also maintained by G. W. F. Hegel and F. H. Bradley) that all aspects of reality, including those we experience as disconnected or contradictory, are ultimately unified in the thought of a single all-encompassing consciousness. Yet Hegel did not see Christianity per se as the route through which one reaches the Absolute, but used its religious system as an historical exemplar of Absolute Spirit. He rigorously criticized all philosophies based on the "school of experience."
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